freedom to just take a bus to get out and based on robust evidence. This may be because about was widely reported as a major and non- most of the data focuses on other aspects of the stigmatising defence against isolation, particularly migration process (such as integration) and wider for older people who live alone (Green et al. physical and mental health issues, with loneliness 2014: 481). being mentioned in passing rather than explored For groups of friends and peers, bus journeys in detail. may be the core of an organised outing, ranging Many young refugees and asylum seekers from regular shared trips to local shopping report depression, loneliness and isolation amenities, to more ambitious projects such as and experience difficulties making friends as visits to places of interest, or (for one group) opportunities for creating social networks are educational outings linked to museums, or limited by language, cultural differences, racism, lectures (Green et al. 2014: 482). Of course, and exclusion from education and employment older people also recognise the negative aspects opportunities. Unaccompanied minors frequently of using public transport, including adverse experience social and economic exclusion which interactions with rude, loud or aggressive people, are known risk factors for problematic drug use but generally the freedom that older people have (Kapasi 2009). Some researchers have noted that in being able to use public transport is, for many although (limited) opportunities for assimilation older people, an important “lifeline”. may protect some from adopting local drug-using It’s not just older people who benefit from free patterns, they may be highly vulnerable to future bus travel. Some research suggests that free problematic drug use. bus travel may also provide a route to social Many immigrants also have experience of moving participation for younger people (Jones et al. internally within the UK – especially if they feel 2000). While older people and younger people in isolated from co-ethnics or their community or London value their ability to use public transport, experience discrimination in their present location many disabled people are forced to use special (Kapasi 2009: 20). Others will actively avoid people transport or taxi cabs. This puts a limit on from similar ethnic or linguistic backgrounds, some people’s freedom to travel, but also their despite facing language and cultural barriers, opportunities for everyday interactions that many because they may have different values or beliefs, of us take for granted. or due to the circumstances under which they left Stigmatised groups their home country (Griffin 2010). Stigmatised groups are at risk of social (and Housing providers can play a crucial role in emotional) isolation and a key part of supporting preventing isolation. Housing Officers, concierges, such groups will involve tackling the stigma and other case workers provide a unique means too. However, it is also worth considering that of communication and link between individual identifying or labelling particular groups as being refugees and community groups and services. at risk of loneliness could also contribute to this Records enabling the identification of new stigma. It could even lead to stereotyping where refugees would facilitate outreach to those who previously none existed. Being mindful of this risk, have become withdrawn and reluctant to engage and thinking of ways to mitigate it, is an important (Strang and Quinn 2010). consideration for any intervention. People with developmental disabilities or Refugees and asylum seekers mental health conditions Despite several researchers identifying refugees Many people with mental health conditions or and asylum seekers as people potentially learning disabilities experience stigma (Scottish vulnerable to social isolation and loneliness as Parliament 2015), but their conditions may also a result of the migration process, much of the influence the way in which they engage and research seems to be speculative rather than interact with the people around them. Clustered groups at risk of isolation or loneliness 20