Contents Background 3 Isolation and loneliness 6 Distinct but related concepts 6 Demographic trends 7 Causes of loneliness 9 Measuring isolation and loneliness 11 Consequences of isolation and loneliness 11 Clustered groups at risk of isolation or loneliness 13 Family-related loneliness 13 Disability and ageing 15 Resource-constrained groups 19 Stigmatised groups 20 Loneliness as occupational hazard 21 Imposed isolation 21 Interventions 23 Characteristics of effective and ineffective interventions 23 Intervention strategies 24 Intervention methods 25 The role of different sectors 28 Conclusion and recommendations 29 References 32 Appendices 39 Appendix 1: data sources 39 Appendix 2: principles of group intervention 41 Front cover photo © Simon Rawles Isolation and loneliness 3